| چکیده انگلیسی مقاله |
One of the most important tenets of ancient Chinese political thought is the ruler’s place in the political structure. The ancient Chinese called the ruler “Son of Heaven” (in Chinese: Tianzi), a position considered quasi-divine. Based on this, the Chinese imperial institution can be viewed as a type of “sacred kingship”. The use of this title can be traced back to the establishment of the second historical state of ancient China, the Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BC), and “Son of Heaven” remained one of the most important imperial titles in the Chinese political sphere until the 20th century and the end of Imperial system. However, the origin of this institution has rarely been the focus of researchers. Since this title does not appear in the previous Shang period (ca. 1600-1046 BC), i.e. the first historically attested Chinese dynasty, its origin is not well known, and it is generally assumed to have been an invention of the Zhou Dynasty for legitimation purposes. Alternatively, some researchers have proposed that this idea is rooted in the common heritage of ancient Chinese people with Tibato-Burmeans or Altaic nomads. This article, by analyzing the classical narrative of Scythian mythology and cuneiform sources, aims to show that a trace of a similar title can be seen as “son of the sky/God” among the Iranian nomads of the Pontic steppes and Central Asia (Scythians), and Irano-Aryan elements of western Asia in the second millennium B.C. As a result, the article proposes that the Chinese “Son of Heaven” is a borrowing from the Proto-Iranian “Son of the Sky God”, by the ancestors of the Zhou Dynasty, probably through central Asia by the proximity to the nomads of western China. Introduction Throughout the history of monarchical China, the ruler has played a pivotal role in the formation, continuity, and evolution of Chinese political thought. Despite the succession of dynasties and periods of political instability, some concepts related to Chinese political thought persisted in Chinese culture until the end of the monarchical era. One of the most important terms was “Son of Heaven” which was the title of the Chinese monarch. According to this title, the Chinese monarch was not merely an ordinary ruler but was considered the representative of the supreme deity, Heaven. Therefore, this title can be seen as an indication of a sacred kingship, whereby the emperor was considered to be chosen by Heaven and to carry out its will. This perception of monarchy from ancient times led to the concept of the “mandate of Heaven”, which, along with the title “son of Heaven” became one of the main foundations of political legitimacy in Chinese history from the Zhou dynasty onwards. This concept implied that the monarch had received the legitimacy of his rule from Heaven. Therefore, as long as Heaven’s will was upon him, he possessed the mandate to rule over the entire world. An interesting point is that according to the Sinologists, the concept of “Heaven” and the political concepts derived from it, namely “son of Heaven”, and “mandate of Heaven,” did not exist in the earliest historical period of China. It was only from the end of the second millennium BCE and the rise of the Zhou dynasty (1046-256 BCE) that these titles appeared in textual sources. This is significant because the Zhou dynasty took the power as foreign invaders and they likely had nomadic background. Based on these facts, the study of the origins of this concept and its related political concepts is one of the important issues for understanding the formation of political thought in early ancient China. Materials and Methods Researchers have focused mainly on explaining the “son of Heaven” or “mandate of Heaven” in ancient Chinese political thought, and have rarely addressed the issue of its origin. Western sinologists, in the 1930s, showed that the Chinese sky-god “Heaven” only appears in documents from the Zhou dynasty onwards, and the emergence of “Heaven” as a deity is related to the Zhou conquest. Furthermore, “Son of Heaven” is not found in pre-Zhou documents. However, in their study of Chinese kingship, they paid attention only to the political changes resulting from the rise of the Zhou dynasty, and the connection between kingship and shamanistic rituals in early China. A few exceptions who have discussed the origins of “Heaven” and the title “son of Heaven” suggest that “son of Heaven” has its roots in the cross-cultural commonalities between ancient Chinese people and the northern Altaic nomads, which the Iranians also played a role in its spread. This article aims to demonstrate that the “Son of Heaven” existed among early Irano-Aryan tribes before its appearance in ancient Chinese political thought. Given the absence of this title in pre-Zhou China, this title was not a political innovation in ancient China but rather a borrowing by the Zhou people from the early nomadic Iranian tribes. Based on this, the article first addresses the rise of the Zhou dynasty and the emergence of the “Son of Heaven” in ancient China. Then, to find the root of this title, the origins of the Zhou people and their relations with the nomads of northern and western China, as well as the existing evidence of this concept among the Eurasian steppe nomads, are analyzed. Finally, the evidence for the existence of this title among the Iranian nomads of the southern Russian steppes, namely the Scythians, and the Ancient Near Eastern cuneiform inscriptions from the second millennium is presented and examined. Results and Discussion The rise of the Zhou Dynasty intertwines with myths, mainly found in Sima Qian's' Shiji, written a millennium after the events. Despite its mythical elements, other sources like the Shujing and Shijing support the framework of events. The article explores the origin of the title “Son of Heaven,” briefly discussing the Zhou's rise. The Zhou dynasty, emerging from a nomadic background, established its rule after defeating the Shang in 1046 BCE. The concept of the “Mandate of Heaven,” justifying their rule, became central in Chinese political thought. Unlike the Shang's deity, Zhou's Heaven was seen as a moral protector. The unique title “Son of Heaven” was exclusively associated with Zhou, marking a significant political innovation. After examining the origins of the Zhou people and the “Son of Heaven” concept, the article considered whether it emerged from Zhou traditions or it was influenced by earlier cultures. The article suggests that the concept likely predates the Zhou conquest and it may have been rooted in their pre-conquest traditions. The Zhou people are believed to have originated from the western region of Shaanxi, where distinct cultural artifacts indicate their separation from the Shang dynasty's influence. Their nomadic background is evident, with connections to the Rong people and other nomadic groups in northern and western China. The “Son of Heaven” concept's origins are debated, with theories linking it to Indo-European or Tibetan-Burmese influences. The article inclines towards the idea that this concept emerged from the Zhou's interactions with Indo-Europeans, especially Iranians in the west, rather than northern nomads. The hypothesis of a shared origin for the Chinese and Indo-European sky gods, while contested, is supported by evidence of cultural interactions between these ancient civilizations dating back to the second millennium BCE. The Tocharians and Indo-Iranians (Aryans), the easternmost branches of the Indo-European languages, had significant contact with the Shang dynasty, as indicated by archaeological findings such as jade ornaments and chariots. Chariots, introduced to China around 1200 BCE, likely came through Xinjiang, reflecting the influence of the Tocharians and Indo-Iranians. The term for chariot in Chinese is a loanword from Tocharian, indicating linguistic and cultural exchange. Beyond these tangible exchanges, the title “Son of Heaven,” traditionally associated with the Zhou dynasty, is shown to have probably Aryan roots. This title may be linked to Indo-European traditions, particularly among the Scythians and Mitanni, who had similar concepts of divine kingship. The Scythian foundation myth, recorded by Herodotus, describes the royal lineage as descended from Zeus (or the Scythian sky god Papaios), suggesting a belief in a heavenly mandate similar to the Zhou's “Mandate of Heaven.” Further evidence comes from the Mitanni kingdom in the Near East, where the title “son of the storm god” appears in cuneiform texts, potentially referring to the Aryan god Indra. The Kassites, another group with Indo-Iranian ties, also displayed a belief in divine kingship, with their kings claiming descent from gods associated with heights and the sky, reinforcing the idea of a shared Indo-European tradition of divine kingship that influenced Chinese concepts of sovereignty. In summary, the cross-cultural interactions between the Indo-Europeans and ancient Chinese, evidenced through linguistic, archaeological, and mythological parallels, support the theory that the concept of divine kingship in China may have been influenced by Indo-European traditions, particularly through the Aryan belief in the divine descent of kings. Conclusion This study explored the transformation of royal ideology in early ancient China following the overthrow of the Shang dynasty by the Zhou people in the 11th century BCE. The Zhou rulers legitimized their rule by calling themselves the “Son of Heaven” (or Son of God), despite no prior evidence of such a term in Shang texts. The research traces the origins of this title to regions beyond Shang China, likely among the nomadic ancestors of the Zhou in the farthest reaches of China. Contrary to current research linking the Zhou to Altai nomads or Tibeto-Burman tribes, this study suggests the influence of Iranian Scythian nomads in shaping this concept. The research highlights cultural exchanges between Indo-European nomads and the Zhou, particularly through the introduction of chariot warfare. Additionally, it presents evidence of similar titles in West Asia, among the Mitanni and Kassite kings, who were influenced by Aryan nomads. The study concludes that the concept of the “Son of God/Heaven” likely originated among Iranian nomads in southern Russia but persisted uniquely in China due to the lack of religious constraints, ultimately evolving into a core political idea that justified rebellion against tyrannical emperors. Acknowledgement This article is part of the research project titled “The Impact of Ancient Iranian Foundations of Central Asia on the common heritage of Iran and China” which was supported by the Iran National Science Foundation (INSF) and Shahid Beheshti University. |